Gyaan Series

Traditional Era: In this era, we have physical servers, organisations ran their application on physical servers.It was expensive for organisation to maintain many physical servers. Virtualized Era:  It is allow you to run multiple virtual machine on a single physical server CPU. VM has own operating system that's why VMs are in heavy weight in nature.  HyperVisor *   creates VM on physical servers. Container Era: Containers are similar to VMs but they are light weight in nature because containers share machine's Operating system. Container RunTime Engine  *   help to creates container on physical servers. *HyperVisor: I t is known as vm monitor. It is a software that creates and run VMs.   Types of HyperVisor: HyperVisor- 1:   The hypervisor runs directly on the underlying host system. It is also known as a “Native Hypervisor” or “Bare metal hypervisor”. It does not require any base server operating system. It has direct access to hardware resources. ...

MOSFET FETs have a few disadvantages like high drain resistance, moderate input impedance and slower operation. To overcome these disadvantages, the MOSFET which is an advanced FET is invented. MOSFET stands for  Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor or Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor . This is also called as IGFET meaning Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor. The FET is operated in both depletion and enhancement modes of operation.  The following figure shows how a practical MOSFET looks like. Construction: The construction of a MOSFET is a bit similar to the FET. An oxide layer is deposited on the substrate to which the gate terminal is connected. This oxide layer acts as an insulator (sio2 insulates from the substrate), and hence the MOSFET has another name as IGFET. In the construction of MOSFET, a lightly doped substrate, is diffused with a heavily doped region. Depending upon the substrate used, they are called as ...

JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR The JFET is abbreviated as Junction Field Effect Transistor. JFET is just like a normal FET. The types of JFET are n-channel FET and P-channel FET. A p-type material is added to the n-type substrate in n-channel FET, whereas an n-type material is added to the ptype substrate in p-channel FET. Hence it is enough to discuss one type of FET to understand both. N-Channel FET: The N-channel FET is the mostly used Field Effect Transistor. For the fabrication of Nchannel FET, a narrow bar of N-type semiconductor is taken on which P-type material is formed by diffusion on the opposite sides. These two sides are joined to draw a single connection for gate terminal. This can be understood from the following figure.  These two gate depositions (p-type materials) form two PN diodes. The area between gates is called as a channel. The majority carriers pass through this channel. Hence the cross sectional form of the FET is understood as ...

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR A  FET is a three-terminal unipolar semiconductor device . It is a voltage controlled device unlike a bipolar junction transistor. The main advantage of FET is that it has a very high input impedance, which is in the order of Mega Ohms. It has many advantages like low power consumption, low heat dissipation and FETs are highly efficient devices. The following image shows how a practical FET looks like.  The FET is a unipolar device, which means that it is made using either p-type or n-type material as main substrate. Hence the current conduction of a FET is done by either electrons or holes. Features of FET: The following are the varied features of a Field Effect Transistor. . Unipolar − It is unipolar as either holes or electrons are responsible for conduction. . High input impedance − The input current in a FET flows due to the reverse bias. Hence it has high input impedance. . Voltage controlled device...

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRASISTOR A Bipolar junction transistor, shortly termed as BJT is called so as it has two PN junctions for its function. This BJT is nothing but a normal transistor. It has got two types of configurations NPN and PNP. Usually NPN transistor is preferred for the sake of convenience. The following image shows how a practical BJT looks like. The types of BJT are NPN and PNP transistors. The NPN transistor is made by placing a ptype material between two n-type materials. The PNP transistor is made by placing an ntype material between two p-type materials. BJT is a current controlled device. A normal transistor which we had discussed in the previous chapters come under this category. The functionality, configurations and applications are all the same.  

Types of Transistors There are many types of transistors in use. Each transistor is specialized in its application. The main classification is as follows.  The primary transistor is the BJT and FET is the modern version of transistor.  

TRANSISTORS   A transistor is a solid-state device made by joining three positive-type and negative-type semiconductors together. In general, all transistors have three pins: base , collector , and emitter . Transistor is a bi-polar device that is a transistor with two junctions namely BE and CE DE EE FE. In theory we take a specified formulae incorporate this with using any type of meter in figuring the mathematical solution.  A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for signals. Why Do We Need Transistors? Suppose that you have a FM receiver which grabs the signal you want. The received signal will obviously be weak due to the disturbances it would face during its journey. Now if this signal is read as it is, you cannot get a fair output. Hence we need to amplify the signal. Amplification means increasing the signal strength. This is just an instance. Amplificat...

INDUCTORS Let me introduce you to another important component in the field of Electronics and Electricals, the Inductor. Inductor is a passive two-terminal component that temporarily stores energy in the form of a magnetic field. It is usually called as a coil. The main property of an inductor is that it opposes any change in current. According to the Faraday’s law of Electromagnet ic induction, When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor. According to lens law, the direction of induced EMF opposes the change in current that created it. Hence, induced EMF is opposite to the voltage applied across the coil. This is the property of an inductor.  An inductor blocks any AC component present in a DC signal. The inductor is sometimes wrapped upon a core, for example a ferrite core. It then looks as in the figure below. Symbols: The symbols of various types of...

TYPES OF CAPACITORS There are many types of capacitors depending upon their function, the dielectric material used, their shape etc. The main classification is done according to fixed and variable capacitors.  The main classification is just like the above one. The fixed capacitors are the ones whose value is fixed at the time of manufacturing itself and the variable ones provide us with an option to vary the value of capacitance.   Types: There are different types of capacitors available in the market. The key factor in distinguishing different types of capacitors is the Dielectric used in its construction. Some of the common capacitor types are ceramic, electrolytic (which include Aluminium capacitors, Tantalum capacitors and Niobium capacitors), plastic film, paper and mica. Each capacitor type has its own advantages and disadvantages. The characteristics and areas of applications may vary from one capacitor to other. Hence, when choosing a capacitor, follow...

CAPACITOR COLOR CODING To know the value of a capacitor , it is usually labelled as below − n35 = 0.35nF or 3n5 = 3.5nF or 35n = 35nF and so on . Sometimes the markings will be like 100K which means, k = 1000pF . Then the value will be 100 × 1000pF = 100nF . Though these number markings are being used now-a-days, an International colour coding scheme was developed long ago, to understand the values of capacitors. In these five band capacitors, the first two bands represent digits, third one indicates multiplier, fourth for tolerance and the fifth represents voltage.

CAPACITORS A Capacitor is a passive component that has the ability to store the energy in the form of potential difference between its plates. It resists a sudden change in voltage. The charge is stored in the form of potential difference between two plates, which form to be positive and negative depending upon the direction of charge storage. A non-conducting region is present between these two plates which is called as dielectric. This dielectric can be vacuum, air, mica, paper, ceramic, aluminum etc. The name of the capacitor is given by the dielectric used. Symbol and Units: The standard units for capacitance is Farads. Generally, the values of capacitors available will be in the order of micro-farads, pico-farads and nano-farads.  The Capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the distance between the plates and is inversely proportional to the area of the plates. Also, the higher the permittivity of a material, the higher will be the capacitance. Th...

RESISTORS COLOR CODE A process called colour coding  is used to determine the value of resistance for a resistor, just as shown in the above figure. A resistor is coated with four color bands where each colour determines a particular value. The below table shows a list of values which each colour indicates.  The first two coloured bands indicate the first and second digit of the value and the third colour band represents the multiplier (number of zeroes added). The fourth colour band indicates the tolerance value. Tolerance: Tolerance is the range of value up to which a resistor can withstand without getting destroyed. This is an important factor. The following figure shows how the value of a resistor is determined by colour code.  The five colour band resistors are manufactured with tolerance of 2% and 1% and also for other high accuracy resistors. In these five band resistors, the first three bands represent digits, fourth one indica...

RESISTORS Resist is the word which means “ to oppose ”. Resistance is the property of opposing the flow of electrons, in a conductor or a semiconductor. A Resistor is an electronic component which has the property of resistance. Symbol and Units: The symbol for a Resistor is as shown below  The units of resistance is  Ohms , which is indicated by Ω (omega) . The formula for resistance is R = V/I Where  V  is Voltage and  I  is Current . It would really be difficult to manufacture the resistors with each and every value. Hence, few values are chosen and the resistors of such values are only manufactured. These are called as “ Preferred Values ”. In practice, the resistors with near values are chosen to match the required applications.

TYPES OF DIODES Diodes are electronic components functions as a one-way valve it means it allow current to flow in one direction. These diodes are manufactured by the semiconductor materials germanium, silicon and selenium. Operation of diode can be classified in two ways, if it allows the current then it is forward biased otherwise it is reverse biased. For silicon diodes the forward voltage is 0.7v and for germanium it is 0.3v. In silicon diode the dark band indicates the cathode terminal and the other terminal is anode. Generally diodes are used as reverse polarity protector and transient protector. 1.) Small Signal Diode: It is a small device with disproportional characteristics and whose applications are mainly involved at high frequency and very low currents devices such as radios and televisions etc. To protect the diode from contamination it is enveloped with a glass so it is also named as Glass Passivated Diode which is extensively used as 1N4148.  The appearance of signa...

DIODE After having known about various components, let us focus on another important component in the field of electronics, known as a  Diode . A semiconductor diode is a two terminal electronic component with a PN junction. This is also called as a  Rectifier . The  anode  which is the  positive terminal of a diode is represented with  A and the  cathode , which is the  negative terminal is represented with  K . To know the anode and cathode of a practical diode, a fine line is drawn on the diode which means cathode, while the other end represents anode.  As we had already discussed about the P-type and N-type semiconductors, and the behavior of their carriers. Formation of a Diode: If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to form a junction, as shown in the figure below.  A P-type material has holes as the majority carr...

1.) INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR  A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an Intrinsic semiconductor . The properties of this pure semiconductor are as follows − The electrons and holes are solely created by thermal excitation. The number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes. The conduction capability is small at room temperature. In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor, it is better to add some impurities. This process of adding impurities is called as  Doping . Now, this doped intrinsic semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic Semiconductor. Doping The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is termed as doping. The impurities added, are generally pentavalent and trivalent impurities. Pentavalent Impurities · The  pentavalent  impurities are the ones which has five valence electrons in the outer most orbit. Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus · The pentavalent atom is called ...

1.)  Insulators are such materials in which the conduction cannot take place, due to the large forbidden gap. Examples: Wood, Rubber. Characteristics: · The Forbidden energy gap is very large. · Valance band electrons are bound tightly to atoms. · The value of forbidden energy gap for an insulator will be of 10eV.   For some insulators, as the temperature increases, they might show some conduction. · The resistivity of an insulator will be in the order of 107 ohm-meter. 2.) Conductors are such materials in which the forbidden energy gap disappears as the valence band and conduction band become very close that they overlap. Examples: Copper, Aluminum. Characteristics: · The free electrons available for conduction are plenty. · A slight increase in voltage, increases the conduction. · There is no concept of hole formation, as a continuous flow of electrons contribute the current. The valence band and conduction band get overlaps. 3.) Semiconductor ...

Electronics means study of flow of electrons in electrical circuits. The word " Electronics " comes from electron mechanics which means learning the way how an electron behaves under different conditions of externally applied fields. IRE - The Institution of Radio Engineers has given a definition of electronics as " that field of science and engineering, which deals with electron devices and their utilization " .  Communications Engineering is an engineering discipline centered on electrical and computer engineering which seeks to support and enhance telecommunication systems. Communications are of two types: • Analog Communication • Digital Communication

Electronics and Communications Engineering (ECE): involves researching, designing, developing and testing of electronic equipment used in various systems. Electronics and Communications engineers also conceptualize and oversee the manufacturing of communications and broadcast systems. This stream of engineering deals with analog transmission, basic        electronics,microprocessors, solid state devices, digital and analog communication, analog integrated circuits, microwave engineering, satellite communication, antennae and wave progression. It also deals with the manufacturing of electronic devices, circuits, and communications equipment.